The fouling of surfaces that come in contact with proteins in solution, e.g., biological fluids and product streams from biochemical reactors, is a pervasive problem. Transfer of solutions of proteins via pipes is impeded by the non-specific binding of proteinaceous material to the interior walls of the pipes; this binding results in a continual decrease in the cross sectional area of the pipe through which the solution may flow. Foreign objects placed in mammals, e.g., during surgical procedures, accumulate proteinaceous material rapidly. In certain cases, this non-specific fouling can partially, or even completely, undermine the initial positive outcome of a surgical procedure. For example, the gradual accumulation of proteinaceous material in and around a artificial heart valve can result in impaired function of the valve, or even in its failure. Furthermore, the accumulation of proteinaceous material around a stent in a blood vessel can result in partial or complete blockage of that vessel. Contact lenses are rendered opaque over time due to the non-specific adsorption of proteins to their surfaces. The non-specific binding of proteins to surfaces can attenuate the sensitivity of sensors exploited in the qualitative and/or quantitative analysis of test samples. These facts underscore the negative effects of non-specific protein adsorption to various surfaces.
A number of strategies have been developed for suppressing non-specific adhesion of proteins to surfaces. One of these strategies involves the pretreatment of a given surface with a specific protein, or proteins, whose effects on that surface are either minimal, predictable, or both. A second strategy centers on coatings which resist adsorption of proteins by presenting a microscopic surface that lacks the structural characteristics responsible for non-specific adhesion. A tremendous amount of scientific resources has been applied to the design, development, testing and the like of protein-resistant coatings, components thereof, and methods for their application. Advances have been achieved in these areas, but the need remains for further improvements in the state-of-the-art in this field.